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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 1 thru 5) PREFACE PURPOSE: This Handbook has been developed to provide military and law enforcement security managers, and specialists with a reference of current perimeter security sensor technologies, capabilities, limitations, and integration methods. The Handbook provides a compendium of sensor technologies and an explanation of each technology's operating principles and applications, as well as integration techniques that can be used to enhance perimeter security and intrusion detection planning. SCOPE: Most of the capabilities, sensors and devices currently in use in the perimeter security field are available as Commercial- Off-The-Shelf (COTS) products and have been successfully integrated into a wide range of operating systems. The data presented in the Handbook has been restricted to those elements of a security system that relate to perimeter security and intrusion detection sensor technology. The Handbook does not include information on computer or access control equipment nor is it intended to provide an all-inclusive list of sensor suppliers or equipment models. Although new or improved equipment is continually being developed and introduced into the marketplace, and a market survey was conducted in an attempt to present a balanced representation of the current state of available technologies, the fundamental principles and applications of intrusion detection have not changed. Virtually all sensors are based on the core principle of establishing and/or monitoring a norm and detecting/signaling a change in the norm, above or below, or within a preset threshold. Information included within this Handbook on specific sensors and manufacturers is derived from information received in response to a request for information placed in the Commerce Business Daily (CBD) on March 7, 1996. The specification and capabilities data included in Section Three of the Handbook is the information provided by those manufacturers or vendors who responded to the Commerce Business Daily request. This information has not been altered or edited. The U.S. government did not conduct an independent test of any of these sensor systems and, therefore, does not warrant, guarantee or endorse any of these devices. Additional product information may be obtained from the manufacturers listed in Section Four of the Handbook. Sensors under development are not included in this Handbook.
POINTS OF CONTACT: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Joint Program Steering Group, Arlington, Virginia Mr. Irv Smietan Program Manager, Joint Program Steering Group (JPSG) Naval Command, Control and Ocean Surveillance Center, In Service Engineering - East (NISE East) P.O. Box 190022 North Charleston, South Carolina 29419-9022 Mr. Jerry A. Koenig, Code 74 Head, Electronic Security Systems Engineering Division (803) 974-5402 Mr. Larry Taylor, Code 74A Chief Engineer, Electronic Security Systems Engineering Division (803) 974-5413 Comments may be forwarded to: NISE East Attn: Electronic Security Systems Engineering Division P.O. Box 190022 North Charleston, SC 29419-9022
TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Goal 1.2 Organization 1.3 Operational Requirements 1.4 System Integration 1.5 Detection Factors 1.6 Sensor Categories 1.7 Technology Solutions 1.8 Performance Characteristics 1.9 Environmental Considerations 1.10 Alarm Monitoring Systems 1.11 Alarm Assessment 1.12 Sensor Integration 1.13 Communications 1.14 Power Supply 1.15 Cost Considerations 1.16 Sensor Applications
SECTION TWO TECHNOLOGY REVIEWS Tab 1 Mechanical Switch Tab 2 Magnetic Switch Tab 3 Balanced Magnetic Switch Tab 4 Glass Break Tab 5 Photo Electric Beam Tab 6 Microwave Tab 7 Wall Vibration Tab 8 Fiber Optic Wall Tab 9 Audio Sensors Tab 10 Passive Ultrasonic Tab 11 Active Ultrasonic Tab 12 Passive Infrared Tab 13 Interior Active Infrared Tab 14 Exterior Active Infrared Tab 15 Dual Technology Passive IR /Microwave Tab 16 Fence Vibration Tab 17 Electric Field Tab 18 Capacitance Tab 19 Strain Sensitive Cable Tab 20 Fiber Optic Fence Tab 21 Taut Wire Tab 22 In-ground Fiber Optic Tab 23 Ported Coax Buried Line Tab 24 Balance Buried Pressure Tab 25 Buried Geophone Tab 26 Video Motion Detection Tab 27 Radar Tab 28 Acoustic Detection (Air Turbulence)
SECTION THREE VENDOR SENSOR DATA Tab 1 Mechanical Switch (No Vendor Information Received) Tab 2 Magnetic Switch (File Size 304 Kbyte) Tab 3 Balanced Magnetic Switch (File Size 135 Kbyte) Tab 4 Glass Break (File Size 1.3 Mbyte) Tab 5 Photo Electric Beam (File Size 929 Kbyte) Tab 6 Microwave (File Size 3 Mbyte) Tab 7 Wall Vibration (File Size 1.7 Mbyte) Tab 8 Fiber Optic Wall (File Size 490 Kbyte) Tab 9 Audio Sensors (File Size 729 Kbyte) Tab 10 Passive Ultrasonic (No Vendor Information Received) Tab 11 Active Ultrasonic (No Vendor Information Received) Tab 12 Passive Infrared (File Size 3.9 Mbyte) Tab 13 Interior Active Infrared (File Size 544 Kbyte) Tab 14 Exterior Active Infrared (File Size 536 Kbyte) Tab 15 Dual Technology Passive IR/Microwave (File Size 1.9 Mbyte) Tab 16 Fence Vibration (File Size 3.8 Mbyte) Tab 17 Electric Field (File Size 649 Kbyte) Tab 18 Capacitance (No Vendor Information Received) Tab 19 Strain Sensitive Cable (File Size 502 Kbyte) Tab 20 Fiber Optic Fence (File Size 1.8 Mbyte) Tab 21 Taut Wire (File Size 520 Kbyte) Tab 22 In-ground Fiber Optic (File Size 493 Kbyte) Tab 23 Ported Coax Buried Line (File Size 2.3 Mbyte) Tab 24 Balanced Buried Pressure (No Vendor Information Received) Tab 25 Buried Geophone (File Size 635 Kbyte) Tab 26 Video Motion Detection (File Size 2.4 Mbyte) Tab 27 Radar (File Size 1.2 Mbyte) Tab 28 Acoustic Detection (Air Turbulence) (No Vendor Information Received)
SECTION FOUR VENDOR IDENTIFICATION DATA Tab A Sensor/Vendor Cross Reference Matrix Tab B Vendor Company Listing
(PRINT REF.: PAGES 5 thru 13) SECTION ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 GOAL This Handbook is intended to be used as a sensor selection reference during the design and planning of perimeter security systems. The Handbook contains a compendium of sensor technologies that can be used to enhance perimeter security and intrusion detection in both permanent and temporary installations and facilities. 1.2 ORGANIZATION The Handbook is organized into four sections. Section One includes this Overview of a dozen factors to be considered prior to selecting a suite of perimeter detection sensors. Section Two consists of a description of each of the twenty-eight (28) Detection Sensor technologies discussed in the Handbook, including Operating Principles, Sensor Types / Configurations, Applications and Considerations, and Typical Defeat Measures. Section Three (presented in the CD version only) contains a representative compendium of Vendor Specification/Cut Sheets for the Sensor Technologies discussed in Section Two. Section Four contains a listing of vendors who responded to the CBD notice and a cross-reference matrix of sensors and manufacturers. The Handbook is best used (after a general review), by referring to the Applications Indices and graphics presented in Section One to determine which technologies best suit the User's needs, and then reviewing the material in Section Two and Three which relates to that technology. 1.3 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS The application of security measures is tailored to the needs and requirements of the facility to be secured. The security approach will be influenced by the type of facility or material to be protected, the nature of the environment, and the client's previous security experience and any perceived threat. These perceptions form the basis for the user's initial judgment, however, these perceptions are rarely sufficient to develop an effective security posture. The nature and tempo of activity in and around the site or facility, the physical configuration of the facility/complex to be secured, the surrounding natural and human environment, along with the fluctuations and variations in the weather, as well as new or proven technologies are all factors which should be considered when planning a security system. In addition to the large variety of permanent Federal and State facilities located within the confines of the United States that require perimeter security, there is a family of American military, humanitarian, diplomatic and peacekeeping complexes overseas, many of which, although transitory in nature require a dynamic and creative approach to the challenge of perimeter security. Many of the technologies discussed in this handbook can, with some adaptation, be applied to these situations. Typical examples of these complexes include: logistic depots, ship and aircraft unloading and servicing facilities, vehicle staging areas, personnel billeting compounds, communications sites and headquarters compounds. Although the personnel and vehicle screening challenges at each site will vary with the nature of the environment and the potential threat, the role of perimeter security will be similar in all cases. Basically stated, the role of a perimeter security system is fourfold: deter, detect, document and deny/delay any intrusion of the protected area or facility. In the case of American facilities and complexes located in foreign countries, this challenge is further complicated when U.S. forces cannot patrol or influence the environment beyond the immediate "fenceline". In situations such as these, the area within the fenceline (the Area of Responsibility - AOR), should be complemented by an area of security surveillance beyond the fence, (preferably a cordon sanitaire) wherein the perimeter, from an early warning perspective is extended outward. This is particularly essential in situations where the host government security forces cannot provide a reliable outer security screen, or the area to be secured abuts a built-up industrial, business, public or residential area. 1.4 SYSTEM INTEGRATION The integration of sensors and systems is a major design consideration and is best accomplished as part of an overall system/installation/facility security screen. Although sensors are designed primarily for either interior or exterior applications, many sensors can be used in both environments. Exterior detection sensors are used to detect unauthorized entry into clear areas or isolation zones that constitute the perimeter of a protected area, a building or a fixed site facility. Interior detection sensors are used to detect penetration into a structure, movement within a structure or to provide knowledge of intruder contact with a critical or sensitive item. 1.5 DETECTION FACTORS Six factors typically affect the Probability of Detection (Pd) of most area surveillance (volumetric) sensors, although to varying degrees. These are the: 1) amount and pattern of emitted energy; 2) size of the object; 3) distance to the object; 4) speed of the object; 5) direction of movement and 6) reflection/absorption characteristics of the energy waves by the intruder and the environment (e.g. open area, shrubbery, or wooded). Theoretically, the more definitive the energy pattern, the better. Likewise, the larger the intruder/moving object the higher the probability of detection. Similarly, the shorter the distance from the sensor to the intruder/object, and the faster the movement of the intruder/object, the higher the probability of detection. A lateral movement that is fast typically has a higher probability of detection than a slow straight-on movement. Lastly, the greater the contrast between the intruder/moving object and the overall reflection/absorption characteristics of the environment (area under surveillance), the greater the probability of detection. 1.6 SENSOR CATEGORIES Exterior intrusion detection sensors detect intruders crossing a particular boundary or entering a protected zone. The sensors can be placed in clear zones, e.g. open fields, around buildings or along fence lines. Exterior sensors must be resilient enough not only to withstand outdoor weather conditions, such as extreme heat, cold, dust, rain, sleet and snow, but also reliable enough to detect intrusion during such harsh environmental conditions. Exterior intrusion sensors have a lower probability of detecting intruders and a higher false alarm rate than their interior counterparts. This is due largely to many uncontrollable factors such as: wind, rain, ice, standing water, blowing debris, random animals and human activity, as well as other sources to include electronic interference. These factors often require the use of two or more sensors to ensure an effective intrusion detection screen. Interior intrusion detection sensors are used to detect intrusion into a building or facility or a specified area inside a building or facility. Many of these sensors are designed for indoor use only, and should not be exposed to weather elements. Interior sensors perform one of three functions: (1) detection of an intruder approaching or penetrating a secured boundary, such as a door, wall, roof, floor, vent or window, (2) detection of an intruder moving within a secured area, such as a room or hallway and , (3) detection of an intruder moving, lifting, or touching a particular object. Interior sensors are also susceptible to false and nuisance alarms, however not to the extent of their exterior counterparts. This is due to the more controlled nature of the environment in which the sensors are employed. 1.7 TECHNOLOGY SOLUTIONS With the advent of modern day electronics, the flexibility to integrate a variety of equipment and capabilities greatly enhances the potential to design an Intrusion Detection System to meet specific needs. The main elements of an Intrusion Detection System include: a) the Intrusion Detection Sensor(s), b) the Alarm Processor, c) the Intrusion/Alarm Monitoring Station, and d) the communications structure that connects these elements and connects the system to the reaction elements. However, all systems also include people and procedures, both of which are of equal and possibly greater importance than the individual technology aspects of the system. In order to effectively utilize an installed security system, personnel are required to operate, monitor and maintain the system, while an equally professional team is needed to assess and respond to possible intrusions. Intrusion detection sensors discussed in this Handbook have been designed to provide perimeter security and include sensors for use in the ground, open areas, inside rooms and buildings, doors and windows. They can be used as stand alone devices or in conjunction with other sensors to enhance the probability of detection. In the majority of applications, intrusion detection sensors are used in conjunction with a set of physical barriers and personnel/vehicles access control systems. Determining which sensor(s) are to be employed begins with a determination of what has to be protected, its current vulnerabilities, and the potential threat. All of these factors are elements of a Risk Assessment, which is the first set in the design process. 1.8 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS: In the process of evaluating individual intrusion detection sensors, there are at least three performance characteristics which should be considered: Probability of Detection (PD), False Alarm Rate (FAR), and Vulnerability to Defeat (i.e. typical measures used to defeat or circumvent the sensor). A major goal of the security planner is to field an integrated Intrusion Detection System (IDS) which exhibits a low FAR and a high PD and is not susceptible to defeat. Probability of Detection provides an indication of sensor performance in detecting movement within a zone covered by the sensor. Probability of detection involves not only the characteristics of the sensor, but also the environment, the method of installation and adjustment, and the assumed behavior of an intruder. False Alarm Rate indicates the expected rate of occurrence of alarms which are not attributable to intrusion activity. For purposes of this Handbook, "false alarms" and "nuisance alarms" are included under the overall term "False Alarm Rate", although technically, there is a distinction between the two terms. A nuisance alarm is an alarm event which the reason is known or suspected (e.g. animal movement/electric disturbance) was probably not caused by an intruder. A false alarm is an alarm when the cause is unknown and an intrusion is therefore possible, but a determination after the fact indicates no intrusion was attempted. However, since the cause of most alarms (both nuisance/false) usually cannot be assessed immediately, all must be responded to as if there is a valid intrusion attempt. Vulnerability to Defeat is another measure of the effectiveness of sensors. Since there is presently no single sensor which can reliably detect all intruders, and still have an acceptably low FAR, the potential for "defeat" can be reduced by designing sensor coverage using multiple units of the same sensor, and/or including more than one type of sensor, to provide overlapping of the coverage area and mutual protection for each sensor. 1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS Most security zones have a unique set of environmental factors which are taken into consideration when designing the system, selecting the sensors, and performing the installation. Failure to consider all the factors can result in excessive "false alarms" and/or "holes" in the system. Each potential intrusion zone, whether it be a perimeter fence, an exterior entrance, a window, an interior door, a glass partition or a secured room, will have special "environmental" factors to be considered. External zones are likely to be affected by the prevailing climate, daily/hourly fluctuations in weather conditions, or random animal activity as well as man-made "environmental" factors such as activity patterns, electrical fields and/or radio transmissions, and vehicle, truck, rail or air movement. There are a wide variety of other considerations which must be assessed when placing sensors to monitor the perimeter of an area or building. A fundamental consideration is the need to have a well-defined clear/surveillance or isolation zone. Such a zone results in a reduction of FARs caused by innocent people, large animals, blowing debris, etc. If fences are used to delineate the clear zone or isolation zone, they should be carefully placed, well constructed and solidly anchored, since fences can move in the wind and cause alarms. Consideration should also be given to dividing the perimeter into independently alarmed segments in order to localize the area of the possible intrusion and improve response force operations. Internal zone sensors can also be impacted by a combination of external stimuli, such as machinery noise and/or vibrations, air movement caused by fans or air conditioning/heating units, and changes in temperature to mention a few. Many of these and others will be discussed in the individual Technology Reviews presented in Section Two. 1.10 ALARM MONITORING SYSTEMS In addition to the Off-the-Shelf Intrusion Technology that is discussed in this Handbook, there is a variety of alarm monitoring systems available. Although each system is unique in the number and variety of options available, all systems perform the basic function of annunciating alarms and displaying the alarm locations in some format. The front-end (control function) of most of these systems is configured with standard 486 or Pentium computer utilizing Windows, DOS, UNIX or OS/2 as the operating system. Many of these systems operate with proprietary software, written by the manufacturer of the security system. 1.11 ALARM ASSESSMENT State-of-the-art alarm assessment systems provide a visual and an audible indication of an alarm. The alarm data is displayed in one of two forms - either as text on a computer/monitor screen or as symbols on a map representation of the area. Most systems offer multiple levels (scales) of maps which can be helpful in guiding security personnel to the location of the alarm. The urgency of the audible/visual alarm cue can vary as to the nature of the alarm or the location of the possible intrusion (e.g. high priority versus low priority areas). In most security systems, several of these capabilities are combined to provide the Security Operations Center personnel with a relatively comprehensive picture of the alarm situation. One option offers a visual surveillance capability which automatically provides the Security Alarm Monitor with a real-time view of the alarm/intrusion zone. 1.12 SENSOR INTEGRATION From a technology perspective, the integration of sensors into a coherent security system has become relatively easy. Typically, most sensor systems have an alarm relay, from points a, b or c, and may have an additional relay to indicate a tamper condition. This relay is connected to field panels via four wires, two for the alarm relay and two for the tamper relay, or two wires, with a resistive network installed to differentiate between an alarm and tamper condition. Most monitoring systems will also provide a means of monitoring the status of the wiring to each device. This is called line supervision. This monitoring of the wiring provides the user with additional security by indicating if circuits have been cut or bypassed. Additionally, different sensors can be integrated to reduce false alarm rates, and/or increase the probability of intrusion detection. Sensor alarm and tamper circuits can be joined together by installing a logic "and" circuit. This "and" system then requires multiple sensors to indicate an alarm condition prior to the field unit sending an alarm indication. Usage of the logic "and" circuit can reduce false alarm rates but it may decrease the probability of detection because two or more sensors are required to detect an alarm condition prior to initiating an alarm . 1.13 COMMUNICATIONS Communications between the front-end computer and the field elements (sensors, processors) usually employ a variety of standard communications protocols. RS-485, RS- 232, Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), and Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) dial are the most common, although occasionally manufacturers will use their own proprietary communications protocol which can limit the option for future upgrades and additions. In order to reduce the tasks required to be handled by the computer, some systems require a preprocessing unit located between the computer and the field processing elements. This preprocessor acts as the communications coordinator to "talk" to the field elements thus relieving the computer of these responsibilities. 1.14 POWER SUPPLY Regardless of how well designed and installed, all intrusion detection systems are vulnerable to power losses, and many do not have an automatic restart capability without human intervention. Potential intruders are aware of this vulnerability and may seek to "cut" power if they cannot circumvent the system via other means. It is critical that all elements of the system have power backups incorporated into the design and operation to guarantee uninterrupted integrity of the sensor field, alarm reporting, situation assessment, and response force reaction. 1.15 COST CONSIDERATIONS The costs of an Intrusion Detection System are easy to underestimate. Sensor manufacturers often quote a cost per meter, cost per protected volume, for the sensor system. Often this figure is representative of the hardware cost only, and does not include the costs of installation, any associated construction or maintenance. Normally, the costs associated with procuring the sensor components are outweighed by the costs associated with acquiring and installing the assessment and alarm reporting systems. 1.16 SENSOR APPLICATIONS Most sensors have been designed with a specific application in mind. These applications are categorized by the environment where they are most commonly employed. The two basic environments or categories are Exterior and Interior. Each of the two basic categories has a number of sub-sets, such as fence, door, window, hallway, and room. The first two of the following set of graphics show a "family tree" illustration of the sensors most applicable to the these two environments (exterior/interior). As mentioned previously, some of the technologies can be used in both environments and consequently are shown on both graphics.
(PRINT REF.: PAGES 13 thru 25) SUPPLEMENTAL GRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS PAGE TOPIC 1-9 Exterior Intrusion Sensors (PRINT REF.: PAGE 14) 1-10 Interior Intrusion Sensors (PRINT REF.: PAGE 15) 1-11 Typical Intrusion Detection Process (PRINT PAGE 16) 1-12 Sensor Applications Model (Exterior) (PRINT REF.: PAGE 17) 1-13 Sensor Applications Model (Interior) (PRINT REF.: PAGE 18) 1-14 Military Application Models (PRINT REF.: PAGE 19) 1-15 Airfield (PRINT REF.: PAGE 20) 1-16 Joint Task Force Compound (PRINT REF.: PAGE 21) 1-17 Port Facility (PRINT REF.: PAGE 22) 1-18 List of Acronyms and Key Terms (PRINT REF.: PAGES 23 thru 25)
Military Application Models
Airfield Complex
Joint Task Force Compound
Port/Logistics Facility
(PRINT REF.: PAGES 23 thru 25) ACRONYMS AND KEY TERMS
- BMS Balanced Magnetic Switch
- CBD Commerce Business Daily
- CCTV Closed Circuit Television
- Conductor Material which transmits electric current.
- COTS Commercial Off The Shelf
- CRT Cathode Ray Tube
- DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
- dB Decibels
- DTMF Dual Tone Multi Frequency
- EFI Electronic Frequency Interference
- EMI Electro-Magnetic Interference
- False Alarm Activation of sensors for which no cause can be determined.
- FAR False Alarm Rate
- FSK Frequency Shifting Key
- IMD Image Motion Detection
- IR Infrared
- LED Light Emitting Diode
- LLLTV Low Light Level Television
- MW Microwave
- NAR Nuisance Alarm Rate
- NISE - East Naval Command, Control & Ocean Surveillance Center, In-Service Engineering, East Coast Division
- PD Probability of Detection
- PIR Passive Infrared
- RADAR Radio Detection And Ranging
- RCO Receiver Cut-Off
- RF Radio Frequency
- RFI Radio Frequency Interference
- Rx Receiver
- TV Television
- Tx Transmitter
- VMD Video Motion Detection
- Applications The installation and working environments (e.g. exterior, interior, hallways, rooms) ,and the zone/coverage pattern that are applicable to a particular sensor. Other sensors which can provide complimentary coverage are also cited.
- Capacitance The property of two or more objects which enables them to store electrical energy in an electrostatic field between them.
- Causes for Activity/events in which a properly Nuisance Alarms operating sensor generates an alarm not attributable to intentional intrusion activity, are discussed. These activity/events are typically caused by "predictable/known" changes in the environmental "norm", such as vegetation movement, strong/turbulent weather conditions, and animal activity.
- Conditions for Conditions which can lower the Unreliable probability of detection and effect the Detection ability of the sensor to fully function. These conditions typically include factors such as weather, background noise, electronic interference, poor surveillance environment, obstructions, and indiscriminate placement of "foreign" objects (e.g. boxes, vehicles).
- Typical Defeat Typical methods which may be used by an Measures intruder to bypass/avoid detection.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 25 thru 27) SECTION TWO SENSOR TECHNOLOGY REVIEWS This section presents information on twenty-eight Intrusion Detection Sensor Technologies. Each sensor technology is discussed separately and has been sequenced to move from the more familiar to the more complex. The reviews have also been grouped to flow from interior point security systems to wall systems, to controlled area coverage systems, to exterior perimeter systems (including a variety of "fence" systems), and then to buried "cordon violation" systems. The last several categories, Image (Video) Motion Detection, Radar and Acoustic Air Turbulence represent newer capabilities. Additional information, in the form of drawings, is located at the end of each Review. Although there are some minor differences in sub-paragraphing in a few of the technologies, the overall framework and key paragraph headings and content are consistent. The basic format is as follows: 1. Introduction 2. Operating Principles 3. Sensor Types/Configurations a. Type One b. Type Two (if applicable) 4. Applications and Considerations a. Applications b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms 5. Typical Defeat Measures
SECTION TWO TECHNOLOGY REVIEWS Tab 1 Mechanical Switch Tab 2 Magnetic Switch Tab 3 Balanced Magnetic Switch Tab 4 Glass Break Tab 5 Photo Electric Beam Tab 6 Microwave Tab 7 Wall Vibration Tab 8 Fiber Optic Wall Tab 9 Audio Sensors Tab 10 Passive Ultrasonic Tab 11 Active Ultrasonic Tab 12 Passive Infrared Tab 13 Interior Active Infrared Tab 14 Exterior Active Infrared Tab 15 Dual Technology Passive IR /Microwave Tab 16 Fence Vibration Tab 17 Electric Field Tab 18 Capacitance Tab 19 Strain Sensitive Cable Tab 20 Fiber Optic Fence Tab 21 Taut Wire Tab 22 In-ground Fiber Optic Tab 23 Ported Coax Buried Line Tab 24 Balance Buried Pressure Tab 25 Buried Geophone Tab 26 Video Motion Detection Tab 27 Radar Tab 28 Acoustic Detection (Air Turbulence)
(PRINT REF.: PAGES 27 and 28) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 1 MECHANICAL SWITCH 1. Introduction: Mechanical switches are used to detect the opening of a protected door or window. These sensors are contact switches that depend on direct physical operation/disturbance of the sensor to generate an alarm. 2. Operating Principle: Mechanical switches are spring- loaded or plunger devices that trigger when a door or window is opened. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Mechanical switches can be mounted on doors, windows, drawers, cabinets to detect opening. They are best used in conjunction with a motion detector device, located inside the room/container, in case intrusion is made by bypassing the switch. To be effective, doors and windows should be properly and securely seated/mounted in their supporting frame prior to the installation of any security (or locking) devices including mechanical switches. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Poor/lose fitting doors or windows can create conditions for unreliable detection, as lose mounting will allow random movement of a door or window to trigger an alarm and could assist a knowledgeable intruder in gaining surreptitious entry. c. Major Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Poor fitting doors or windows. Improper installation of doors, windows, locks or alarm switches are the primary cause of NAR. In addition, alarms caused by lose fitting or improperly mounted doors or windows can be aggravated by extreme weather conditions (wind and storms) as well as seasonal fluctuations in the external and/or internal environment (heating versus air conditioning). 4. Typical Defeat Measures: Holding the switch in the "normal closed" position while opening the door or window will preclude the initiation of an alarm. Typically this is accomplished with a small piece of metal designed to prevent the switch from triggering. Also, taping the switch in the "closed" position during daytime operations allows an intruder to return after the alarm has been activated and open the door or window without generating an alarm.
(PRINT REF.: PAGES 28 and 29) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 2 MAGNETIC SWITCH 1. Introduction: Magnetic switches are contact switches used to detect the opening of a door or window and depend on the direct physical operation/disturbance of the sensor to generate an alarm. 2. Operating Principle: Magnetic switches are composed of two parts - a two-position magnetic switch mounted on the interior of a door, window or container frame, and a two- position, magnetically operated switch. The standard switch is designed to be either normally open or normally closed, depending on the design. When the door/ window is closed, the magnet pulls the switch to its "normal" non-alarmed position. When the door/ window is opened, the magnet releases the switch, breaking the contact and activating the alarm. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Magnetic switches are mounted on doors, windows and containers to detect opening. In high value circumstances, they should be used in conjunction with a motion detector sensor located inside the room to detect an intrusion made other than via the alarmed door, window or access portal. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Excessive movement of the door, window or access panel in its frame/setting can generate conditions for unreliable detection and should be corrected prior to installation of the security switches. c. Major Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Poor fitting doors or windows (caused by age or and improper installation) and compounded by extreme weather conditions which cause excessive movement of the door or window are the major causes of nuisance alarms. 4. Typical Defeat Measures: Penetration of the door or window without moving the magnet switch mechanism will bypass the alarm device. A second, free-moving and stronger magnet can be used to imitate the mounted magnet, allowing the door to be opened without generating an alarm. The location of the switch should not be observable to a potential intruder, reducing an intruder's ability to bypass or "jump" the terminal.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 29 thru 31) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 3 BALANCED MAGNETIC SWITCH (BMS) 1. Introduction: Balanced Magnetic Switches consist of a switch assembly with an internal magnet that is usually mounted on the door/window frame and a balancing (or external) magnet mounted on the moveable door/window. 2. Operating Principle: Typically, the switch is balanced in the open position between the magnetic field of the two magnets. If the magnetic field is disturbed by the movement of the external magnet, the switch moves to a "closed" position. When the door is in the normal closed position, the magnetic field generated by the biasing magnet interacts with the field created by the switch magnet, so that the total net effect on the switch is stable. When the door is opened, the switch falls to one of the contacts, becoming unstable and generating an alarm. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Balanced Magnetic Switches (BMS) provide a higher level of security for windows and doors than magnetic or mechanical switches. Balanced magnetic switches are available in casings designed to prevent the switch from electrically causing an explosion in a hazardous area. These switches are recommended for flammable or hazardous environments. The balanced magnetic switch should be mounted on the door frame, and the balancing magnet on the door. The switch should be adjusted to initiate an alarm when the door is opened between a half and one inch. For enhanced security, a BMS (just as mechanical and straight magnetic switches) should be used in conjunction with a motion detector located inside the room, hallway or container in case intrusion is made by bypassing the switch. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Excessive movement in the door or window will create conditions for unreliable detection and should be eliminated before security switches are installed. c. Major Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Poorly fit doors or windows and improper installation are the primary causes of nuisance alarms. Extreme weather conditions which cause excessive movement of the door, window or access portal can add to the NAR. 4. Typical Defeat Measures: A distinct advantage to using the balanced magnetic switch is its inherent ability to counter a common defeat measure used on straight magnetic sensors. This defeat measure involves placing an external magnet on the switch housing to hold the internal switch in place while the door or window is opened. The design of the Balance Magnetic Switch precludes this defeat mechanism from being effective.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 31 thru 34) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 4 GLASSBREAK 1. Introduction: Glassbreak sensors monitor glass that is likely to be broken during intrusion. The sensors are housed in a single unit and mounted on a stable interior element (wall or ceiling) facing the main glass surface. Three types of sensors are used: acoustic, shock, and a dual technology (shock/acoustic) sensor. Regardless of which sensor is used, coverage typically does not exceed 100 square feet of glass surface. 2. Operating Principle: Glassbreak sensors use a microphone to listen for frequencies associated with breaking glass. A processor filters out all unwanted frequencies and only allows the frequencies at certain ranges to be analyzed. The processor compares the frequency received to those registered as being associated with the breaking of glass. If the received signal matches frequencies characteristic of breaking glass, then an alarm is generated. 3. Sensor Types/Configurations: There are three basic types of glass break sensors - acoustic, shock, and a combination of the two, resulting in a dual technology (acoustic / shock ) sensor. a. Acoustic Sensors: Acoustic sensors listen for, and detect, the high frequency typically created when an initial shattering impact is made on the window. Once impact is made, high frequencies caused by the glass breaking travel away from the point of impact toward the outer edges of the glass surface. These vibrations excite the acoustic sensor processor which passes the frequency through a filter, compares the frequency for a match and signals an alarm if appropriate. b. Shock Sensors: Shock sensors feel/sense the typical 5 KHz frequency shock wave that is created when glass is broken. When the processor detects this shock it signals an alarm. Two types of "shock" sensors (transducers) are used: electric piezo and non-electric piezo. Most use piezo transducers to "feel/sense" the 5 KHz frequency. However, some use a non-electric piezo transducer which does not have any electricity present until the piezo "bends" when it is "hit" by a 5 KHz. signal. The non-electric piezo type reduces false alarms dramatically. c. Dual Technology Acoustic/Shock Sensors: In dual- tech sensors an acoustic device is linked with a shock device. This combination utilizes the complementary capabilities of both devices and provides for a low false alarm rate sensor. The two sensing elements are located within a single casing unit, and are connected electronically through the use of an AND logic function. The acoustic portion of the sensor uses a microphone to detect frequencies associated with breaking glass. A processor filters out all unwanted frequencies and only allows frequencies at certain ranges to be analyzed. Once the processor receives the frequency, it is compared to those associated with glass breakage. If the signal matches frequencies characteristic of breaking glass, then a signal is sent to the AND gate. The shock portion of the sensor "feels" for the 5 KHz frequency in the form of a shock wave created when glass is broken. When the processor detects this shock, it sends a signal to the AND gate. Once the AND gate has received both signals an alarm is generated. NOTE: A distinct advantage to this sensor is its incorporation of two Glassbreak technologies into one sensor. This significantly reduces false alarms from background noise such as RFI and frequency noise created by office machines. 4. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Depending on the manufacturer's specifications, acoustic sensors should be mounted on the window, window frame, wall or ceiling. If mounted on the glass, the sensor should be placed in the corner approximately two inches from the edge of the frame. If mounted on the wall or ceiling, the sensor should be installed opposite the window. Glassbreak sensors should be used in conjunction with contact switches (e.g., magnetic switches, balanced magnetic switches) in case intrusion is attempted by opening the window instead of breaking it. A volumetric (area monitoring) motion detector should also be incorporated in the protected interior area to detect intrusion/entry by an avenue other than the window. The volumetric device should be positioned at a point and angle that allows it to look in toward the window of concern to maximize the detection capability. NOTE: Although not recommended, the sensor may be mounted on the window. If so, the mounting adhesive should be specified to withstand long exposure to summer heat, winter cold and condensation that might collect on the window. It should be noted that a window glass can get as hot as 150 degrees F in the summer and as cold as -30 degrees F in the winter, therefore, it is essential that the application adhesive meets these specifications. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Although inappropriate matching of sensor range capacity to the window size and poor location may cause the sensor to be out of effective detection range, the most typical deficiency occurs when the acoustical characteristics of the room are in conflict with the sensor's performance specifications. "Soft" acoustic rooms (e.g. carpeted with window drapery) that absorb vibration or by altering the acoustic characteristics of the "hard" room (e.g., adding window shutters, blinds, draperies, rugs) after the sensor has been tuned can cause detection inadequacy of the sensor. NOTE: As a precaution all windows should be checked for cracks and replaced prior to installation of a Glassbreak sensor to ensure that a good frequency signature will be produced if the window is broken. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Improper calibration or installation of an acoustic Glassbreak sensor will cause nuisance alarms. In addition, RF interference and sharp impact noises can cause false alarms. Also, improper application/placement of the sensor or background noise, such as office, industrial and cleaning machinery, can create noise in the frequency detection range of the sensor. 5. Typical Defeat Measures: The detaching/cutting of an opening in the window or the removal of a window pane (with or without a sensor mounted on it) can bypass the sensor. The break frequency can be distorted by muffling the sound of the breaking glass reducing the potential for the "correct" frequency registered by the sensor.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 35 and 36) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 5 PHOTO ELECTRIC BEAM 1. Introduction: Photo electric beam sensors transmit a beam of infrared light to a remote receiver creating an "electronic fence". These sensors are often used to "cover" openings such as doorways or hallways, acting essentially as a trip wire. Once the beam is broken/interrupted, an alarm signal is generated. 2. Operating Principle: Photoelectric beam sensors consist of two components: a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter uses a Light Emitting Diode (LED) as a light source and transmits a consistent infrared beam of light to a receiver. The receiver consists of a photoelectric cell that detects when the beam is present. If the photo electric cell fails to receive at least 90% of the transmitted signal for as brief as 75 milliseconds (time of an intruder crossing the beam), an alarm signal is generated. The beam is modulated at a very high frequency which changes up to 1,000 times per second in a pattern that correlates with the receiver's expectation to guard against a bypass attempt by using a substitute light source. In order to bypass the sensor, the angle of the beam and modulation frequency would have to be matched perfectly. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: The sensor is usually installed to protect a hallway, doorway or long wall surface. The transmitter and receiver can be distanced up to 1,000 feet and still provide adequate coverage. A photo electric beam sensor is unaffected by changes in thermal radiation, fluorescent lights or Electronic Frequency Interference/Radio Frequency Interference (EFI/RFI). The photo electric sensor also has a high probability of detection and low false alarm rate. The path of the beam can be altered using mirrors to create a less predictable detection barrier, however, the use of mirrors reduces the signal strength of the beam and diminishes the effective distance of the beam. A common problem with mirrors is that they are often accidentally knocked out of alignment, generating a need to calibrate and realign the mirrors periodically. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Anything that disturbs the transmission of light can affect the detection reliability of the sensor. Factors such as fog, smoke, mist or dust and reflective particles cause the light particles to be refracted or scattered. If these conditions create a 10% or more reduction in the signal received, an alarm signal is generated. Extreme variations in background lighting or sunlight may also reduce sensitivity. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Any objects that may break the beam such as birds, animals, blowing leaves or paper will interrupt the signal, therefore generating an alarm. In addition, improper alignment of the transmitter, receiver or mirrors may generate an alarm. Mirrors can also collect dust, causing refraction/diffusion of the reflected beam. 4. Typical Defeat Measures: Stepping over or passing under the signal path will defeat the intent of the sensor. However, mirrors can be used to counter this vulnerability by creating a "Zig-Zag" multiple beam barrier pattern.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 36 thru 42) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 6 MICROWAVE SENSORS 1. Introduction: Microwave sensors are motion detection devices that transmit/flood a designated area/zone with an electronic field. A movement in the zone disturbs the field and sets off an alarm. Microwave Sensors may be used in exterior and interior applications. 2. Operating Principle: Microwave sensors transmit microwave signals in the "X" band. These signals are generated by a Gunn diode operating within pre-set limits that do not affect humans or the operation of pacemakers. Although very little power is used, the system provides enough energy for a detector to project a signal up to 400 feet in an uninterrupted line of sight. The detection of intrusion is directly related to the Doppler frequency shift principle. Most sensors are tuned to measure the Doppler shift between 20 Hz and 120 Hz. These frequencies are closely related to the movements of humans. Objects that fail to produce a signal or produce a signal outside the tuned frequencies are ignored. Objects that fall within the range cause the sensor to generate an alarm signal. 3. Sensor Types/Configurations: There are two basic types of microwave sensors: monostatic sensors, which have the transmitter and receiver encased within a single housing unit, and bistatic sensors, in which the transmitter and receiver are two separate units creating a detection zone between them. A bistatic system can cover a larger area and would typically be used if more than one sensor is required. a. Monostatic Units: The transmitter and receiver are contained in a single dual function unit. The antenna is mounted within the microwave cavity and can be configured/shaped to cover a specific area or detection zone. The shape of the detection beam can be changed to transmit a long, slender beam or a short oval one. Monostatic microwave sensors transmit signals at two different transmitting frequencies. The frequencies are rapidly turned on and off, first at one frequency and then at the other. The receiver is then shut off for a short period of time after transmission. Because microwaves travel at a constant speed and the receiver is looking for reflected energy, the receiver can be programmed to receive only signals that are able to go out and return within a specific time period. The area where all reflected frequencies can be picked up by the transmitter is known as the Receiver Cut Off (RCO) region. This enables the user to protect a well defined detection zone. The receiver is programmed to ignore signals from stationary objects and only receive signals from disturbances/movement in the designated field of coverage. b. Bistatic Units: The transmitter and receiver for bistatic microwave sensors are separate units. The detection zone is created between the two units. The antenna can be configured to alter the signal field (width, height), creating different detection zones. The receiver is programmed to receive signals from the transmitter and detect a change in the frequencies caused by a movement in the field of coverage. Bistatic microwave sensors transceivers are somewhat limited by poorly defined detection patterns, and nuisance alarms may be a problem if large metal objects are nearby or if windy conditions exist. 4. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Microwave sensors can be used to monitor both exterior areas and interior confined spaces, such as vaults, special storage areas, hallways and service passageways. In the exterior setting they can be used to monitor an area or a definitive perimeter line, as well as to serve as an early warning alert of intruders approaching a door or wall. In situations where a well-defined area of coverage is needed, monostatic microwave sensors should be used. However, monostatic microwave sensors are limited to 400 feet coverage, while bistatic sensors can extend up to 1,500 feet. To further enhance detection, video motion detection equipment (or another type sensor) can be installed to complement the microwave application. The use of a companion system, such as video image motion detection, not only provides a second line of defense, but provides security personnel with an additional tool to assess alarms and discriminate actual/potential penetrations from false alarms or nuisance events. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Since microwave sensors operate in the high frequency spectrum (X band), close association or proximity to other high frequency signals can adversely affect the detection reliability of these sensors. Areas that contain strong emitters of electric fields (radio transmitters) or magnetic fields (large electric motors or generators) can effect the ability of microwave sensors to function properly, and should be avoided or compensated for by distinct signal separation. Zones that contain fluorescent lights can also pose a problem. The ionization cycle created by fluorescent bulbs can be interpreted by the detector as motion and thus provide false alarms. Self generated signal reflection is a common problem caused by improper placement/mounting. Positioning the sensor externally and parallel to the wall rather than imbedding it in the wall will avoid this problem. Also, large metal objects which can reflect the signal and/or provide "dead pockets" should be kept out of the detection zone, as should equipment whose operation involves external movement or rotating functions. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Because of the high frequencies at which microwaves travel, the signal/sensor is not affected by moving air, changes in temperature or humidity. However, the high frequency allows the signal to easily pass through standard walls, glass, sheet rock, and wood. This can cause false alarms to be generated by movement adjacent to, but outside the protected area. Conversely, it is essential to test for, note, and compensate for any dead spots (areas of no detection) created by metal objects such as dumpsters, shipping crates, trash cans, and electrical boxes. These dead spots create ideal areas for intrusion attempts. In addition, signals reflected off these type objects/materials can "extend" sensor coverage to areas not intended to be covered, thus creating the potential for false alarms. 5. Typical Defeat Measures: An intruder with some degree of periodic access to the denied area may be in a position to conduct "walk tests" or otherwise cause/observe the alarm activation pattern, and determine nominal detection coverage patterns, thereby identifying a possible low detection approach path. In addition, an intruder advancing at a deliberately slow rate of movement, who takes maximum advantage of any obscuring, blocking or signal absorbing characteristics associated with the surveillance environment can reduce the probability of detection. However, regular calibration of the sensor(s), sanitation of the area, and the use of another type of sensor can substantially increase the probability of detection.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 42 thru 44) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 7 WALL VIBRATION 1. Introduction: Vibration sensors are designed to be mounted on walls, ceilings and floors and intended to detect mechanical vibrations caused by chopping, sawing, drilling, ramming or any type of physical intrusion attempt that would penetrate the structure on which it is mounted. 2. Operating Principle: Transducers designed to detect the low frequency energy (vibrations) typically generated during a physical intrusion attempt via the surrounding walls, roof or floor are mounted directly to the inner walls of the protected zone, and detect the change in the normal "vibration" profile. Two basic types of transducers are used to detect changes: piezoelectric transducers and mechanical transducers. Both types convert the seismic vibrations detected to electrical signals proportional to the vibrations. The signals are then sent through a screening filter which determines if the signal corresponds to the signal spectrum typical of an intrusion attempt. If the frequency is characteristic of an intrusion attempt, an alarm signal is generated. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Vibration sensors should be securely and firmly placed 8 to 10 feet apart, on a wall or ceiling where intrusion is expected. The difference in spacing lengths should be determined by the wall's ability to transmit the disturbance energy. A volumetric (area monitoring) sensor (passive infrared, audio) should be used in conjunction with wall sensors and directed toward the expected penetration site, to provide detection of an intrusion that may not cause sufficient vibrations to trigger the vibration sensors. NOTE: Care should be exercised before using vibration sensors on walls of limited structural integrity such as sheet rock, plywood or thin metal, unless they are positioned on a main support. These types of walls are very prone to vibrations caused by sources other than intrusion actions. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Unstable or improper installation or spacing of units, and mounting of the sensors to materials (rugs, fabric, heavy wall coverings) that are not conducive to detecting vibrations will create unreliable detection conditions. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Poor placement is a primary cause of nuisance alarms. Vibration sensors may generate alarms if mounted on walls that are exposed to external vibrations (e.g., trains, planes), or if the walls are subject to vibrating machinery. In any of these or similar situations, vibration sensors should not be used. 4. Typical Defeat Measures: The system can be defeated by avoiding entry through the protected area, or by selecting a point and method of entry in a segment of a wall, roof or floor that will permit the suppression/diffusion of the intrusion vibrations. Another defeat measure, which is also applicable to many other sensors as well, is the generation of a persistent but random number of false alarms over a long period of time, causing the alarm to be ignored or the response time greatly diminished.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 44 thru 46) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 8 FIBER OPTIC WALL 1. Introduction: A fiber optic wire sensor is in an open mesh network (quilt) appliqu‚ that can be applied directly to an existing wall or roof, or installed in a wall (or roof) as it is being constructed. The fiber optic network is designed to detect the low frequency energy (vibrations) caused by chopping, sawing, drilling, ramming or physical attempt to penetrate the structure on which it was mounted. 2. Operating Principle: The fiber optic cable acts as a line sensor and contains an electro optics unit which transmits light using a Light Emitting Diode (LED) as the light source. The light travels through the fiber optic network and is picked up by a detector, which is very sensitive to slight alterations in the transmission. When an adequate alteration in the light pattern takes place, the signal processor generates an alarm. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: These sensors are very sensitive, and special consideration must be given to determine if this type of sensor is suitable for a particular wall/roof. A vibration sensor may generate false alarms if mounted on walls that are exposed to external vibrations (vehicle, train or heavy foot movement) or if the walls are subject to vibrating machinery. However, an imbedded fiber optic sensor, although very perceptive to slight changes in the light pattern, can be calibrated easily and gauged to detect various forms of intrusion. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Improper installation or calibration. Caution should be exercised before using vibration sensors to protect walls of lesser structural integrity, such as sheet rock, plywood or thin metal. These walls are prone to vibrations from sources other than intrusion attempts. c. Causes of Nuisance Alarms: Machinery that causes vibrations can generate false alarms and should be located away from the wall on which the fiber optic cable is mounted. Also, vibrations caused by exterior aircraft and train traffic can cause the wall/roof/building fabric to vibrate, thereby causing the vibration sensor to generate an alarm signal. 4. Typical Defeat Measures: The system can be bypassed by avoiding entry through a protected area or targeting an insensitive location as the point of entry.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 46 and 47) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 9 AUDIO SENSORS 1. Introduction: Audio detectors listen for noises generated by an intruder's entry into a protected area, and are generally used, but not exclusively, in internal applications, from an entrance foyer to critical data/resource storage areas. 2. Operating Principle: The sensor is made up of two devices: Pick-up units mounted on the walls or ceilings of the monitored area, and an Amplifier unit which includes processing circuitry. The Pick-up units are basically microphones that listen for noise. These microphones collect sound for analysis by the processor circuit, which can be calibrated to a noise threshold that is characteristic for an intrusion attempt. If a certain amount of noise is detected from a monitored area within a selected time period, an alarm signal is generated. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Audio sensors should be mounted in areas where the predicted intrusion noise is expected to exceed that of the normal environmental noise. If background noise does exist, and if calibration is not accomplished to compensate for it, the microphone may be unable to detect/differentiate an intrusion noise. If excessive background noise is present, the audio sensor should not be considered. Typically audio sensors are used in conjunction with another detection sensor (Passive Infrared-PIR, ultra-sonic, microwave) to provide a greater probability of detection. Since an audio sensor is unaffected by changes in the thermal environment and fluorescent lights have no effect on the sensor's detection characteristics, its use with a thermal imaging motion detection system can provide both audio and visual record/tracking of an intrusion. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Principle causes of unreliable detection include ineffective sensitivity settings caused by extraneous background noise, such as clocks, office equipment, boilers and heating or air conditioning units. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Excessive background noise, such as airplanes, trains or loud weather (thunderstorms) may cause significant noise levels thereby generating an alarm. If these factors are present, careful consideration should be given to determining whether this sensor is appropriate. 4. Typical Defeat Measures. An intruder who makes a slow, deliberate entry, and takes measures to muffle the normal sounds of movement and intentionally allows sufficient lag time to occur between any noise generated by his movement may avoid detection.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 47 thru 49) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 10 PASSIVE ULTRASONIC 1. Introduction: The passive Ultrasonic sensor is a motion detection device that "listens" for ultrasonic sound energy in a protected area, and reacts to high frequencies associated with intrusion attempts. 2. Operating Principle: The passive ultrasonic sensor "listens" for frequencies that have a range between 20 - 30 KHz. Frequencies in this range are associated with metal striking metal, hissing of an acetylene torch, and shattering of concrete or brick. The sound generated is transmitted through the surrounding air and travels in a wave type motion. When the sound wave reaches the detection sensor it determines if the frequency is characteristic of an intrusion. If the criteria is met, an alarm signal is generated. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Ultrasonic sensors are typically mounted on a wall or ceiling and are frequently used in tandem with another sensor, such as a passive device (Passive Infrared-PIR) to provide a greater probability of detection (PD). However, this may also increase the overall false alarm rate (FAR) slightly, depending on the variability and uncontrollability of the environmental characteristics of the monitored area. An advantage to using the passive ultrasonic sensor is that the device is unaffected by heat, thus thermal changes in the environment do not hinder its detection ability. It is also easy to contain its energy within a selected area, since ultrasonic energy does not normally pass through walls, roofs or partitions. The disadvantage is that it does not pass through furniture or other obstructions either (boxes, crates), thus creating "dead zones" of non- surveillance. This disadvantage can be overcome by placing additional sensors at second and third locations to "cover" the dead zones of sensor # 1. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection:. Extreme changes in temperature or humidity from those prevalent during the initial installation and calibration may cause a change in detection reliability. As with most sensors, ultrasonic sensors should be recalibrated periodically, at least on a seasonal basis. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Some of the most common stimuli that cause ultrasonic sensors to alarm are air movement from heating and air conditioning systems, drafts from doors and windows, hissing from pipes, and the ringing of a telephone. All these stimuli can create noise near or in the ultrasonic range, thereby triggering an alarm. 4. Typical Defeat Measures: Passive ultrasonic sensors have a limited frequency spectrum, and intrusion sounds other than those that fall into the unit's spectrum (such as drilling), will not generate an alarm signal. For this reason it is recommended that an active measures detection device (such as a microwave sensor) be used in conjunction to ensure adequate detection.
(PRINT REF.: PAGES 50 thru 51) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 11 ACTIVE ULTRASONIC 1. Introduction: The Active Ultrasonic sensor is a motion detecting device that emits ultrasonic sound energy into a monitored area and reacts to a change in the reflected energy pattern. 2. Operating Principle: Ultrasonic sensors use a technique based on a frequency shift in reflected energy to detect intruders. Ultrasonic sound is transmitted from the device in the form of energy. The sound uses air as its medium and travels in a wave type motion. The wave is reflected back from the surroundings in the room/hallway and the device "hears" a pitch characteristic of the protected environment. When an intruder enters the room, the wave pattern is disturbed and reflected back more quickly, thus increasing the pitch and signaling an alarm. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Typically, ultrasonic sensors are mounted on the wall or ceiling. Ultrasonic sensors can be used in conjunction with a passive device (e.g., PIR) to provide a greater probability of detection (PD). However, this may also increase the false alarm rate (FAR), depending on environmental characteristics of the monitored area. Ultrasonic sensors are not affected by heat, thus changes in the thermal environment do not hinder its detection ability. Ultrasonic energy is easily contained within a selected area avoiding the problem of the energy passing through walls and detecting activity outside the protected zone. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Ultrasonic energy will not pass through most substantive objects and material, (e.g. storage, shelving), thus creating dead zones within the coverage area where the sensor is ineffective. The sensor must be positioned so dead zones are minimal. Also, extreme changes in temperature or humidity from the initial calibration may cause a hindrance in detection reliability. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Some of the most common stimuli that cause ultrasonic sensors to false alarm are air movement from heating, air conditioning systems, drafts from doors and windows, hissing from pipes, and telephone rings. All of these stimuli can create noise near or in the ultrasonic range, thus triggering an alarm. Also anything that causes movement, such as animals, has the potential to cause an alarm. 4. Typical Defeat Measures:. Slow horizontal movement by an intruder across the area of coverage is often difficult for ultrasonic sensors to detect. Proper calibration is needed to ensure that slow moving intruders will be detected. In addition, a knowledgeable and properly equipped intruder can use special "test lights" to detect coverage patterns and circumvent these areas.
(PRINT REF.: PAGES 52 thru 57) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 12 PASSIVE INFRARED 1. Introduction: As the name implies, Passive Infrared (PIR) sensors are passive, that is, the sensor does not transmit a signal; the sensor head simply registers an impulse when received. The sensor head is typically divided into several sectors/zones, each defined with specific boundaries. Detection occurs when an emitting heat source (thermal energy) crosses two adjacent sector boundaries or crosses the same boundary twice within a specified time. 2. Operating Principle: Passive infrared sensors detect electromagnetic radiated energy generated by sources that produce temperatures below that of visible light. PIR sensors do not measure the amount of IR energy per se, but rather the change of thermal radiation. PIRs "see/detect" infrared "hot" images by sensing the contrast between the "hot" image and the "cooler" background. Infrared energy is measured in microns, with the human body producing energy in the region of 7-14 microns. Most PIR sensors are focused on this narrow band width. In order to avoid capturing environmental thermal deviations, Rate Of Change measurement circuitry or bi-directional pulse counting circuitry is employed. In Rate Of Change measurement, the processor evaluates the speed at which the energy in the field of view changes. Movement by an intruder in the field of view produces a very fast rate of change, while gradual temperature fluctuations produce a slow rate of change. In the bi-directional pulse counting technique, signals from separate thermal sensors produce opposite polarity. An unprotected/unshielded human entering a field of view moving at a typical speed (walk or above) will normally emit/produce several signals which allow detection to occur. When the radiation change captured by the lens exceeds a certain pre-set value, the thermal sensor produces an electrical signal which is sent to a built-in processor for evaluation and possible alarm. 3. Sensor Types/Configurations: The PIR wavelength is subdivided into two major range detection categories: one covers Near Infrared Energy (e.g. thermal energy emitted by TV remote control devices), and the other covers the Far Infrared Energy (e.g. thermal energy emitted by people). It is this latter category which is employed in security applications. Optics and reflective principles play a very important role in the design and function of PIRs. Because of the need to precisely focus thermal radiation, the reflection/focusing of the energy waves is done two ways: Reflective Focusing and the Fresnel Lens method. In Reflective Focusing, the energy waves are reflected off a concave mirror and directed into the sensing element. By contrast, a Fresnel Lens allows the energy to travel directly to the sensor. Both methods use some type of protective covering on the sensor, so the loss of some energy is unavoidable. However, both sensors work quite well. 4. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Passive infrared sensors should be installed on walls or ceilings, with the detection pattern covering the possible intrusion zones. Each detection/surveillance zone can be pictured as a "searchlight" beam that gradually widens as the zone extends farther from the sensor with different segments being illuminated while others are "dark". This design characteristic allows the user to focus the "beam" on areas where protection is needed while ignoring other areas, such as known sources of false alarms. Tower/ceiling mounted PIRs theoretically provide a 360 degree detection pattern. b. Curtain Lens Feature: The interchanging of different lens and reflectors/mirrors permits the field(s) of view and zones of surveillance to be changed and/or segmented. PIR design includes a "Curtain Lens" feature that provides a full barrier protection zone by eliminating the typical dead zones. PIRs with this type are ideal for protecting hallways or entry points. c. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Because the PIR looks for thermal radiation projected against a cooler background, detection is based on temperature. As the environment approaches the same temperature as the intruder, the detectors become less sensitive. This is especially true for environments ranging between 80 - 100 degrees. Theoretically, if a person was radiating the same temperature as the environment, he would be invisible to the sensor. For this reason another type of sensor should be used in conjunction with the PIR to enhance the system. Complementary sensors for interior applications include balanced magnetic switches, glassbreak detectors, and time delayed CCTV cameras. For exterior applications Video Motion Detection is a good complement. d. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Heat radiating from small animals and /or rodents can cause false alarms. Time activated space heaters, ovens and hot water pipes can also provide false alarms if they are in the field of view. In addition, PIR sensors that are not designed with the capacity to filter (ignore) visible light can be affected by car headlights or other sources of focused light. Although infrared energy from sunlight is filtered by ordinary window glass, objects in a room can become heated over time and subsequently begin emitting/reflecting infrared energy. If this energy is "turned off/on", (such as by the movement of clouds), it can create a random "on/off" situation, thereby generating nuisance alarms. 5. Typical Defeat Measures: Shadowing, cloaking or masking the intruding heat source (person/machine) from the field of view decreases the probability of detection as it reduces the possibility of sufficient radiated/emitted heat being focused on the thermal sensor. In addition, knowing the dead spots of the detection pattern can permit an intruder to bypass active regions. Walking into the sensor rather than across the sensor's field of view can also reduce the detection capability by not allowing the boundaries of the detection beams to be broken.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 57 thru 59) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 13 INTERIOR ACTIVE INFRARED 1. Introduction: Interior active infrared sensors generate a curtain pattern of modulated infrared energy and react to a change in the modulation of the frequency or an interruption in the received energy. Both of these occurrences happen when an intruder passes through the protection zone. 2. Operating Principle: Interior active infrared sensors are made up of a transmitter and receiver encased within a single housing unit. The transmitter uses a laser to create a detection zone. The laser plane is projected onto a special retro-reflective tape that defines the end/edge of the protection zone. Energy is reflected off the tape back to the receiver, which is located in the same housing unit as the transmitter. Upon reaching the receiver the energy passes through a collecting lens that focuses the energy onto a collecting cell, which converts the infrared energy to an electrical signal. The receiver monitors the electrical signal and generates an alarm when the signal drops below a preset threshold for a specific period of time. An intruder passing through the field of detection will interrupt the signal and temporarily cause the signal to fall below the threshold value. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Depending upon which type of tape is used as the reflective medium, coverage patterns can be between 15-25 feet wide by 17-30 feet long. In addition, the laser plane angle can be adjusted from 37 to 180 degrees. This system has a high probability of detecting intruders. Speed or direction of the intruder, and the temperature of the environment, have no effect on detection characteristics. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Dust or other particles collecting on the surface of the reflective tape will hinder the detection capabilities. The reflective tape must have no gaps and be continuous to ensure reliable detection, and the angle from the sensor to the ends or corners of the tape must not exceed 45 degrees. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: The activation of an incandescent light which shines directly into the sensor itself will generate an alarm. Also, incandescent lights greater than 100 Watts (or sunlight) falling directly in line with the tape will be reflected back to the receiver with a magnitude significant for alarm signaling. 4. Typical Defeat Measures: Avoidance of the projected laser plane. A knowledgeable intruder can deduce the field of the potential detection pattern from the location of reflective tape, and plan his movements to avoid detection.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 59 thru 61) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 14 EXTERIOR ACTIVE INFRARED 1. Introduction: Active infrared sensors generate a multiple beam pattern of modulated infrared energy and react to a change in the modulation of the frequency, or an interruption in the received energy. Both of these occurrences happen when an intruder passes through the area covered by the beams. 2. Operating Principle. An active infrared sensor system is made up of two basic units, a transmitter and a receiver. One of the units is located at one end of the protection zone and the other at the opposite end of the zone. The transmitter generates a multiple frequency straight line beam to the remote receiving unit, creating an infrared "fence" between the transmitter and the receiver. Energy reaching the receiver passes through a collecting lens that focuses the energy into a collecting cell, which converts the infrared energy to an electrical signal. The receiving unit monitors the electrical signal and generates an alarm when the signal drops below a preset threshold for a specific period of time. An intruder passing through the field of detection will interrupt the signal and temporarily cause the signal to fall below the threshold value. 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Exterior active infrared sensors are line of sight devices that require the area between the two units to be uniformly level and clear of all obstacles/obstructions that could interfere with the IR signal. Low spots in the terrain will create "holes" in the surveillance pattern while obstacles/obstructions will disrupt the "coverage" pattern. Typically, active infrared sensors are used in conjunction with a single or double fence barrier which defines the perimeter to be covered. A sensor zone length can extend up to 1,000 feet. Precise alignment of the transmitter to the receiver is critical for reliable detection. The detection beam is relatively narrow and requires regular calibration/realignment. Detector misalignment could be caused by movements in the ground (e.g., earth tremors), objects hitting the unit (e.g., falling rocks, vehicles, falling trees) or even freezing and thawing of the ground. In areas where freezing ground or extreme winds are expected, the transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) foundations should be installed deep enough to restrict movement/misalignment of the two units. In areas where the units are susceptible to being hit or jarred, protective barriers should be installed around them. Snow and grass around the Tx and Rx should be removed by hand or blower to prevent damage or misalignment of the units. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Weather conditions such as fog, heavy rain or severe sand/dust will attenuate the infrared energy and can affect the reliable detecting range. In areas where conditions like these are routine, another type of device should be considered, or the detection zone should be decreased to compensate for energy reduction. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Major causes of nuisance alarms are those that involve animal interaction with the protected area. Vegetation also can pose a problem if allowed to grow to a size its movement (caused by windy conditions) will generate an alarm. 4. Typical Defeat Measures: Since active infrared detectors are line of sight devices, the most common method of defeat is bridging/tunneling under the detection beams. For this reason it is recommended that any dips or gullies between the transmitter and receiver units/columns be filled in to make the area uniformly level. Another typical defeat measure is to use the Tx and Rx columns for support to vault over the detection beams. This can be prevented by overlapping the beam detection zones.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 61 thru 63) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 15 DUAL-TECHNOLOGY PASSIVE INFRARED / MICROWAVE 1. Introduction: Dual-Technology Passive Infrared/Microwave sensors use a combination of both microwave and passive infrared technology in combination with AND logic to provide a lower False Alarm Rate (FAR) sensor than either of the sensors independently. This category of sensors are typically referred to as Dual-Tech. 2. Operating Principle. In this type Dual-Technology sensor, a passive sensor (PIR) and an active sensor (Microwave) are combined into one unit. Both sensing elements are located in a single casing, and are connected electronically by using the AND Logic function. The areas of coverage for each sensor are similar in shape so the detection zone is uniform. Since the two sensors will not "sense" an intrusion detection precisely at the same instant, the system is designed to generate an alarm when both sensors produce an output in a pre-selected time interval. NOTE: The technical parameters and operating characteristics of each sensor are described in previous reviews (Tabs 6 and 12). 3. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: The sensors can be installed along a perimeter line, a fence or a delineated buffer zone, or as a defense against intruders approaching a door or wall. To further enhance the probability of detection, image/video motion detection equipment can also be installed to survey the intrusion/approach zone. In addition to increasing the detection potential, this capability permits security personnel to assess the nature of the "intrusion/alarm" immediately and remotely. Although a dual-technology sensor does reduce the false alarm rate (FAR), it also reduces the probability of detection, since both sensors must have a positive detection before initiating an alarm. The mathematical probability of detection for the dual-tech unit is the product of the probability of detection for both individual units. For example, given a theoretical individual detection of rate 99 percent and 98 percent, the detection percentage for the Dual-Technology (And logic configuration) drops to 97.02 percent. b. Conditions for Unreliable Detection: Since passive sensors have the greatest probability of detection when the intruder is moving transversely, and active sensors have the greatest probability of detection when the intruder is moving radially, the position of the sensor will dictate a positional trade-off that diminishes the sensor's detecting ability. Any condition that causes unreliable detection for the microwave sensor, as described in Tab 6 or the PIR sensor in Tab 12, can cause problems for the dual- tech sensor because the AND Gate Logic function needs signals from both sensors to generate an alarm. Likewise, any environmental conditions that affect the performance of either sensor will reduce the effectiveness of the dual-tech. However, dual-technology sensors can be both cost effective (cheaper than purchasing two individual sensors) and FAR beneficial if employed in a predictable and/or controlled environment. c. Causes for Nuisance Alarms: Nuisance Alarm Rate for the dual technology sensor is very low, however, a combination of environmental conditions (e.g. fluorescent lights, heater exhaust) may cause false detection. Environmental conditions that affect each sensor individually should be considered (compensated for) to keep from reducing effectiveness of the dual technology unit. 4. Typical Defeat Measures. Knowledge of the dead spots in the detection pattern will permit an intruder to bypass all active regions. Short of this knowledge, extreme slow motion movement is difficult for microwave sensors to detect, and blocking or masking the infrared sensor's field of view can further decrease its sensitivity and reduce the probability of sufficient "heat" being detected by/focused on the PIR portion of the sensor. In addition, walking into the PIR sensor, rather than across its field of view, can reduce the detection capability of the sensor by not "breaking" the boundaries of the PIR detection beams.
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(PRINT REF.: PAGES 63 thru 67) TECHNOLOGY REVIEW # 16 FENCE VIBRATION 1. Introduction: Fence vibration sensors mounted on fence fabric detect frequency disturbances associated with sawing, cutting, climbing or lifting of the fence fabric. 2. Operating Principle: All of these type actions generate mechanical vibrations and/or stress in the fence fabric that are different from the vibrations associated with normal or natural occurring environmental activity, and typically have higher frequencies and larger amplitudes. Fence vibration sensors detect these vibrations by using either electro-mechanical or piezoelectric transducers. Signals from the transducers are sent to the signal processor to be analyzed. Upon arriving at the processor, frequencies uncharacteristic of intrusion are filtered out. Frequencies characteristic of intrusion are passed through the screening filter, thus triggering an alarm. 3. Sensor Types/Configurations: There are two basic types of fence vibration sensors: Electro-mechanical sensors, whose signal processor has a pulse accumulation circuit that recognizes momentary contact openings of electromechanical switches; and Piezoelectric, whose signal processor responds to the amplitude, duration, and frequency of the transmitted signal. a. Electro-Mechanical Sensors: Electro-mechanical sensors use either mechanical inertia switches or mercury switches to detect fence vibration or stress. Mechanical-inertia switches consist of a vibration sensitive mass that rests on two or three electric contacts thus creating a closed circuit. The mass is movable and reacts to minute changes in the vibrations (frequencies) generated in the fence during a penetration attempt. The vibration disturbs the mass and is moved/separated from one or more of the contact points momentarily opening the circuit and creating an alarm. In some sensors the mass is intentionally constrained or restricted by some internal guides to ensure that only a significant vibration will cause movement, break the circuit and activate the alarm. Mercury switches consist of a glass vial containing a small amount of mercury with a set of normally "open" electrical contacts located in close proximity, but not touching or immersed in the mercury. An impact- disturbance of the fence fabric causes the mercury to be displaced from its normal resting position, making momentary contact with one of the electrical contacts and creating an alarm. b. Piezoelectric Sensors: Piezoelectric sensors convert the mechanical impact forces generated during an intrusion attempt into electrical signals. Unlike the open/close signal generated by electro-mechanical sensors, piezoelectric sensors generate an analog signal that varies proportionally in amplitude and frequency to the vibration activity on the fence fabric. These signals are sent to the signal processor for evaluation, where they first pass through a filter that screens out signals uncharacteristic of intrusions. The signal processor then interprets the remaining signals to determine if sufficient activity has occurred to warrant an alarm. 4. Applications and Considerations: a. Applications: Fence vibration sensors perform best when mounted directly to the fence fabric. Each sensor is connected in series along the fence with a common cable to form a single zone of protection. The sensor zone lengths have a recommended range of 300 feet. Vibration sensors are the most economical fence sensor and the easiest to install. The sensors have a high probability of detecting intrusion and work well protecting properly installed and maintained fence lines. In-ground vibration (seismic) sensors installed